Articles, prepositions, conjunctions. Word-formation

Textbook basis

• Dooley J., Obee B. «Action for Kazakhstan Grade 11 (Science Schools) Student's Book», Express Publishing / Atamura, 2020, pp. 20, 34, 62, 76, 90, 110, 124
• Goldstein B., Jones C. «Eyes Open 2 for Kazakhstan. English. Grade 6. Student's Book», Cambridge University Press / Kokzhiek-Gorizont, 2019, pp. 88, 90, 91
• Jenny Dooley, Bob Obee «Excel for Kazakhstan, Grade 9, Student's Book», Express Publishing, 2019, pp. 21, 95, 120
• Goldstein B., Jones C., Anderson V., Higgins E. et al. «Eyes Open 3 for Kazakhstan. English. Grade 7. Student's Book», Cambridge University Press / Discovery Education, 2025, pp. 82, 85
• Dooley J., Obee B. «Action for Kazakhstan Grade 11 Student's Book» (Science Schools), Express Publishing / Atamura, 2020, pp. 45, 157
• Dooley J., Obee B. «Action for Kazakhstan Grade 11 Student's Book» (Science Schools), Express Publishing / Atamura, 2020, pp. 22, 36

Key points

• Articles: a/an — one of many, a countable noun in the singular; the — a known, unique or already mentioned thing, and always before a superlative; zero article — abstract and uncountable nouns in a general sense (knowledge, water).
• Prepositions of time (in / on / at / until), place (in / on / at / off / in the middle of), direction (through / along / up / down into / to) and dependent prepositions fixed by a word (proud of, similar to, depend on).
• After a preposition the verb takes -ing: interested in learning.
• Conjunctions show the logic: reason (because, since, as), contrast (but, although, while, however), condition (if, unless), result (so), purpose (so that), addition (both … and, as well as).
• Word formation: a prefix changes the meaning (un-, dis-, mis-, re-, over-), a suffix usually changes the part of speech (-ment, -ness, -ity, -ful, -less, -ise, -ly).

Theory

1. Articles

Article	When	Examples
a / an	one thing of a class; first mention; generic "any member"	A scientist needs patience. an invention
the	the thing is known or already mentioned; superlatives; "of"-phrases	the invention of the telephone, the most common synthetic material
zero	abstract / uncountable nouns in a general sense; plurals in general	Knowledge is the foundation on which science was built.

A before a consonant sound, an before a vowel sound (an invention). An uncountable noun never takes a/an: not a water, but some water.

2. Prepositions

• Time: in + month / season / year (in November, in the spring); on + day (on Saturday); at + clock time, at the weekend; until + end point (until January).
• Place: in a big space or inside (in Sweden, in a forest); on a surface or a line (on the river bank, on each side of the road); at a point (at a hotel); off the east coast of Africa; in the middle of Manchester.
• Direction: through the wood, along the river, up the hill, down into a valley, to the town.
• Dependent prepositions (learn them with the word):

Adjective +	Noun +	Verb +
proud of, afraid of	reason for	depend on
interested in	effect on	belong to
good at	solution to	listen to
similar to	attitude to	look for
responsible for	research into	pay attention to
dissatisfied with, compatible with		feed on, prey on

The preposition can change the meaning: apply to a person or rule / apply for a job.

• Complex prepositional phrases (formal): in spite of, on behalf of, with regard to, in favour of, in terms of, by way of.

3. Conjunctions and linkers

• Reason: because / since / as + clause; because of + noun: because it was cold / because of the cold.
• Contrast: but, although (conjunction, inside one sentence), while, however / nevertheless (adverbs, usually after a full stop or semicolon and followed by a comma), on the contrary.
• Condition: if; unless = if not: You won't meet the band unless you're first in the queue.
• Addition / agreement: and, as well as, both … and: Both the teachers and the students supported the change.

4. Word formation

• Negative / opposite prefixes: un- (unsure), in- / im- / il- / ir-, dis- (appear → disappear), mis- = wrongly (understood → misunderstood), counter-, anti-; re- = again (evaluate → re-evaluate); under- = too little (staffed → understaffed), over- = too much.
• Suffixes by part of speech:

Nouns	Adjectives	Verbs	Adverbs
-ment, -ion, -ation, -ance/-ence, -al (refuse → refusal)	-ful, -less (careless)	-ise/-ize (stabilise, modernise)	-ly (slowly)
-ness (happiness), -ity, -ship (membership)	-ive, -able, -ous	-ify (purify), -en (strengthen)

• Spelling: consonant + y → i (happy → happiness); -de → -s- (decide → decision); doubling (refer → referring).
• Word family: care → careless → carelessness.

Examples

1. Knowledge is ___ foundation of science. A) a B) the C) — . Answer: B — a specific foundation identified by "of science"; but knowledge itself takes no article.
2. The sun doesn't come up again ___ January. A) since B) until C) on. Answer: B (until + end point).
3. Australian football is similar ___ soccer. Answer: to (not with).
4. We stayed at home ___ the storm. A) because B) because of. Answer: B — a noun follows.
5. Form a noun from refuse: "His ___ surprised everyone." — refusal; from member: membership; opposite of understood meaning "understood wrongly" — misunderstood.

Common mistakes

• a water, two rices — uncountable nouns with a or a plural.
• Missing the before a superlative or extra the before abstract nouns (the knowledge is power).
• in Saturday, at the winter, go in the wood instead of on Saturday, in (the) winter, go through the wood.
• Russian / Kazakh calques: listen music, depend the weather — the dependent preposition is obligatory.
• Because of it was cold; Although it was late, but we continued.

Check yourself

1. Which article goes with a noun in a general, generic sense in "___ scientist needs patience"? — A.
2. Complete: He was proud ___ his team. — of.
3. What does unless mean? — If not.
4. Is however a conjunction or an adverb? What punctuation follows it at the start of a sentence? — An adverb (linker); a comma.
5. Form a verb from pure and a noun from decide. — Purify; decision.