Parts of speech

Textbook basis

• Goldstein B., Jones C. (with McKeegan D., Anderson V., Levy M.) «Eyes Open 1 for Kazakhstan. Grade 5» (Student's Book), part 1, Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp. 5, 10, 14, 40
• Goldstein B., Jones C. (with Heyderman E.) «Eyes Open 2 for Kazakhstan. Grade 6» (Student's Book), Cambridge University Press / Kokzhiek-Gorizont, 2019, pp. 6, 11, 33, 116
• Goldstein B., Jones C., Anderson V., Higgins E. et al. «Eyes Open 3 for Kazakhstan. Grade 7» (Student's Book), Cambridge University Press / Discovery Education, 2025, pp. 34, 39, 41, 134
• Jenny Dooley, Bob Obee «Excel for Kazakhstan, Grade 9, Student's Book», Express Publishing, 2019, pp. 17, 27, 129
• Jenny Dooley, Bob Obee «Excel for Kazakhstan, Grade 9, Student's Book», Express Publishing, 2019, pp. 49, 128
• Jenny Dooley, Bob Obee «Excel for Kazakhstan, Grade 9, Student's Book», Express Publishing, 2019, pp. 26, 30, 124
• Goldstein B., Jones C., Anderson V., Higgins E. et al. «Eyes Open 3 for Kazakhstan. Grade 7» (Student's Book), Cambridge University Press / Discovery Education, 2025, pp. 35, 57, 124, 125
• Goldstein B., Jones C., Anderson V. «Eyes Open 4 for Kazakhstan (Grade 8) Student's Book», Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp. 32, 33, 55, 116

Key points

• Noun: countable (a book — two books) or uncountable (rice, water, meat, fruit). Some plurals do not change: fish, sheep.
• Pronoun: personal, possessive, reflexive (myself … themselves), demonstrative (this/these, that/those), indefinite (someone, anything, nobody), relative (who, which, that, where, whose), quantitative (some, any, many, much, few, little).
• Adjective: degrees of comparison (small — smaller — the smallest; comfortable — more comfortable — the most comfortable; good — better — the best; bad — worse — the worst); -ing = cause, -ed = feeling.
• Adverb: usually adjective + -ly; well, fast, hard are irregular; comparison more slowly, faster, better, worse.
• Verb: tense is chosen by the time marker; modal verbs have no -s and are followed by the bare infinitive.

Theory

1. Nouns and quantity words

Countable	Uncountable
a/an, two, many, (a) few	some, much, (a) little
many students, a few books	much time, little water
both: a lot of, some, any

People eat a lot of rice but not much fresh fruit.

2. Pronouns

• Reflexive: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves:
• Relative: who — people, which — things, that — both (not after a comma), where — place, whose — possession: That's the man who owns this shop.
• Indefinite: someone, anything, nobody, everything, somewhere.
• some — in positive sentences; any — in negatives and questions: Are there any tickets left?

3. Adjectives

• One syllable: -er / -est (soft — softer); spelling: big — bigger (doubling), happy — happier (y → i).
• Long adjectives: more / the most.
• Irregular: good — better — the best; bad — worse — the worst.
• than after the comparative, the before the superlative: London is smaller than New York. My best subject is Biology.
• -ing / -ed: What an amazing holiday! (the holiday causes the feeling) / I was really excited (my feeling). I am bored ≠ I am boring.
• Order before a noun: opinion → size → age → shape → colour → origin → material: a lovely old brown wooden table.

4. Adverbs

• Manner: slow → slowly; good (adjective) → well (adverb): He speaks French well.
• Comparison: more slowly, faster, better (well), worse (badly).
• Position: frequency adverbs before the main verb but after be (I always catch the bus; She is always late); manner after the verb or object (He walked quite slowly); place and time at the end (He arrived late yesterday).

5. Verbs: tense by time marker

Tense	Use	Markers	Example
Present simple	habit, fact	usually, every day	I usually play baiga every weekend.
Past simple	finished action at a definite time	yesterday, last week, in 2007, ago	We got to our hotel at 6 o'clock yesterday evening.
Present perfect simple (have/has + V3)	experience, result now, unfinished period	ever, never, just, already, yet, since, for, so far	We've only been here for 24 hours.
Present perfect continuous (have/has been + V-ing)	process that lasts up to now	for, since, how long, all morning	I have been learning English for six years.

since + point (since 2019), for + period (for three years). State verbs (know, like) are not used in continuous: not I have been knowing.

6. Modal verbs

Function	Modal
ability	can, could
permission	may, can
obligation	must, have to
no necessity	don't have to
prohibition	mustn't
advice	should, ought to
possibility	may, might, could
past: certainty / impossibility / possibility	must have done / can't have done / may have done
past: regret, criticism	should(n't) have done

You mustn't park here (forbidden) ≠ You don't have to meet them (not necessary). You should have booked tickets in advance.

Examples

1. There isn't ___ milk in the fridge. A) many B) much C) a few. Answer: B — uncountable noun, negative.
2. This film is ___ than the book. A) more good B) better C) best. Answer: B.
3. I was ___ by the news. A) surprising B) surprised. Answer: B — a feeling of a person.
4. I ___ him three times this year. A) saw B) have seen. Answer: B — the period this year is not finished; but I saw him yesterday.

Common mistakes

• two rices, sheeps, fishes, a water.
• more bigger, gooder, the most good; no the before a superlative.
• I'm boring instead of I'm bored; a red big car instead of a big red car.
• I have seen him yesterday; since three years instead of for three years.

Check yourself

1. Which quantifier goes with countable nouns: much or many? — Many.
2. Give the comparative and superlative of bad. — Worse, the worst.
3. Where do frequency adverbs go with the verb be? — After it: She is always late.
4. Which tense goes with yesterday? — Past simple.
5. What does They can't have gone home express? — Certainty that something did not happen in the past.